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In this resource, we explore how grammar can be taught rhetorically where the focus is on the learner understanding the writing situation, making effective choices while constructing sentences, adopting appropriate punctuation, and selecting active or passive voice, and more. In this document, we outline important recommendations for you to keep in mind as you teach grammar in your writing assignments.

Principles for Teaching Grammar Rhetorically

Below are a few research-supported principles for helping ºÚÁÏÉçÇø learn grammar. 

1. Every language has multiple grammars. Research in linguistics illustrates the existence of multiple grammars within languages, as well as sub-grammars within grammatical contexts. As an example, the English language has moments where it follows grammatical conventions more akin to German while others are more similar to Spanish. When discussing or assessing grammar in the classroom, it’s thus important to consider which grammar—or even whose grammar—you are working with, and how ºÚÁÏÉçÇøs might (or might not) understand these nuances.
2. Grammar instruction should be approached in context. Researchers across writing studies and linguistics advocate for teaching grammar in context as opposed to exclusively through stand-alone grammatical “drills.” Instructors can utilize inductive lessons for teaching grammar, where ºÚÁÏÉçÇøs notice patterns in writing and then deduct and establish for themselves what the rules might be. Another useful approach might be to take a model paragraph that ºÚÁÏÉçÇøs read and ask them questions about the grammatical structure utilized there. Overall, it can be helpful for ºÚÁÏÉçÇøs to see and understand more authentic context for grammatical rules and conventions. 
3. Learning  grammar requires practice, feedback, and revision. Learning grammatical conventions—especially as an English-language learner who might have learned different kinds of grammar—requires practice, feedback, and revision. The same principles for teaching writing apply here with teaching grammar. Provide ºÚÁÏÉçÇøs with plenty of opportunity to practice grammatical conventions, receive feedback on their grammar usage, and then chances to revise and improve their grammar.
4. Minimalist marking approaches are most useful to ºÚÁÏÉçÇø learning. Instead of correcting every single grammatical error in a ºÚÁÏÉçÇø’s piece of writing, consider adopting a minimalist marking approach, which encourages more ºÚÁÏÉçÇø engagement. In this approach, the instructor could indicate a problem with a sentence by putting a mark at the end of the line, asking the ºÚÁÏÉçÇø to take a look and identify for themselves what the grammatical error might be. The instructor then could assign a small revision assignment where ºÚÁÏÉçÇøs might revise their sentences and briefly share what the error was and why they made the correction. This approach simultaneously avoids overwhelming the ºÚÁÏÉçÇø with a sea of “red pen” marks and also helps them more actively learn the grammatical rule. 
5. Use proofreading strategies to help ºÚÁÏÉçÇøs succeed. Grammatical errors in finalized writing projects are often a result of the writer not going back and checking over their work carefully. Instructors can write into assignment descriptions methods for effective proofreading, such as reading the text aloud, reading the text with a two or three day break since writing, and so forth. Instructors can also model proofreading strategies during class time, even by just spending ten minutes reading through a paper together and illustrating the ways that reading aloud can catch mistakes and errors.
6. Respond thoughtfully to English language learners' grammatical errors. When working with English language learners, there’s a lot to keep in mind when responding to grammatical errors. Important questions to ask yourself might be (drawing from Ferris, 2011): what types of errors should instructors respond to? When should they be addressed? What are the most effective ways to respond to them? What benefit does “error correcting” vs. other methods of grammatical instruction have?
7. Treat grammar as stylistic, rhetorical choices rather than as a system of rules to memorize and apply. Again, grammar is a tool to communicate meaning, and it comes with plenty of stylistic and rhetorical choices along the way. While there are rules that govern a grammar’s structure, there are also exceptions and personal preferences. It’s important for ºÚÁÏÉçÇøs not to lose their own sense of writerly agency and creativity in their writing. 
8. Grammar is just one component of writing. Grammar is a tool to communicate meaning, but writing as an act is more than just proper grammar written on a page. “Good” writing is effective writing that makes sense to the reader and achieves the writer’s purpose. Writing can be “good” even if it has some grammatical errors. While pointing out grammatical errors can help a ºÚÁÏÉçÇø become a better writer, it’s not the only element of writing that is important to point out and focus on in assessment.

Resources/Further Reading

Teaching Grammar in Context

• Lancaster, Zak, & Olinger, Andrea R. (April 2014). Teaching Grammar-In-Context in College Writing Instruction: An Update on the Research Literature, WPA-CompPile Research Bibliographies, No. 24. WPA-CompPile Research Bibliographies.
• Lunsford, Andrea A., & Lunsford, Karen J. (2008). Mistakes are a fact of life: A national comparative study. College Composition and Communication, 59, 781-806.

Practice, Feedback, and Revision 

• Adler-Kassner, Linda, & Wardle, Elizabeth. (2015). Naming what we know: Threshold concepts of writing studies. Logan, UT: Utah State University Press.
  • Rose, Shirley. All writers have more to learn. (pp. 59-61)
  • Bazerman, Charles, & Tinberg, Howard. Text is an object outside of oneself that can be improved and developed. (pp. 61-62)
  • Brooke, Collin, & Carr, Allison. Failure can be an important part of writing development. (pp. 62-64).
  • Yancey, Kathleen Blake. Learning to write effectively requires different kinds of practice, time, and effort. (pp. 64-66).
  • Downs, Doug. Revision is central to developing writing. (pp. 66-67).
  • O’Neill, Peggy. Assessment is an essential component of learning to write. (pp. 67-68).
  • Matsuda, Paul Kei. Writing involves the negotiation of language differences. (pp. 68-70).

Working with English Language Learners 

• Bitchener, J., & Ferris, D. R. (2012). Written corrective feedback in second language acquisition and writing. Routledge.
• Ferris, D. (2011). Treatment of error in second language ºÚÁÏÉçÇø writing. University of Michigan Press.
• Ferris, D. R. (2003). Response to ºÚÁÏÉçÇø writing: Implications for second language ºÚÁÏÉçÇøs. Routledge.

Miami’s resources for teaching ºÚÁÏÉçÇøs to self-edit and other resources for teaching and for ºÚÁÏÉçÇøs.

Rhetorical Approaches to Grammar 

• Cleary, Michelle Navarre. (2014). The wrong way to teach grammar. The Atlantic Online. Retrieved from .
• Kolln, Martha, & Gray, Loretta S. (2016). Rhetorical grammar: Grammatical choices, rhetorical effects (8th ed.). Pearson.
• Micciche, Laura R. (2004). Making a case for rhetorical grammar. College Composition and Communication, 55(4), 716-737.

Teaching Proofreading 

• Madraso, Jan. (1993). Proofreading: The skill we’ve neglected to teach. The English Journal, 83(2), 32-41.

Minimalist Marking Approach

• Haswell, Richard. (1983). Minimalist marking. College English, 45(6), 600-604. doi: 10.2307/377147.
• McNeilly, Anne. (2014). Minimalist marking: A success story. The Canadian Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 5(1). doi: .

Readings Under 10 Pages:

• From Ball, Cheryl E. & Loewe, Drew M., editors. Bad ideas about writing. Morgantown, WV: West Virginia University Libraries Digital Publishing Institution, n.d. .
  • Giovanelli, Laura. Strong writing and writers don’t need revision. (pp. 104-108)
  • Lisabeth, Laura. Strunk and White set the standard. (pp. 117-120).
  • Dufour, Monique & Ahern, Dodson, Jennifer. Good writers always follow my rules. (pp. 121-125).
  • Dunn, Patricia. Teaching grammar improves writing. (pp. 144-149).
  • Rule, Hannah J. Good writers must know grammatical terminology. (pp. 150-154).
  • Harris, Muriel. Grammar should be taught separately as rules to learn. (pp. 155-159).